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 The Teacher  |  L’Enseignant(e)

The history of teaching in Canada is a fascinating journey that traces its roots back to the early days of New France. In those times, formal schools were scarce, and education was primarily a familial endeavour. Over the centuries, this humble beginning evolved into a structured educational system. Let's delve into the transformation of the teacher's role and the Canadian education system, exploring key milestones along the way.

In the early days of New France, there simply weren’t enough children to warrant the establishment of primary or secondary schools as they existed in France. Instead, education seamlessly wove itself into daily life. The family matriarch played a central role in imparting knowledge, drawing from her own education in France or her own maternal teachings to educate her children and often those in her community. While she possessed a strong grasp of religious studies, her instruction might not have extended to reading, writing, or mathematics. Essential life skills, like sewing, gardening, and land clearing, were often passed down by other family members to ensure the children's productivity.

Récollets to Jesuits: Establishing Primary Education

The French colonial government entrusted the Catholic Church with formal education, shaping the curriculum to include religion, mathematics, natural science, and the French language. Consequently, education in the era of New France became intricately intertwined with religious teachings and the objectives of the colonial authorities. As early as 1615, the Récollets, a Catholic order, established educational institutions with the dual purpose of instructing and assimilating indigenous children into the Christian faith. This endeavour closely aligned with the French colonial authorities' overarching ambition to transform First Nations people into loyal French subjects, a process referred to as francisation or "Frenchification." However, these initial attempts at schooling faced considerable challenges, primarily stemming from cultural disparities and the nomadic, self-sufficient lifestyle of indigenous communities, ultimately resulting in limited success. Click here to learn more about Indigenous Residential Schools in New France and later in Canada.

In 1635, a pivotal moment in Canadian education unfolded as the Jesuits, another religious order, established the very first primary school in Québec. Aptly named the "Petite École" or "Little School," this institution marked the beginning of formal primary education in Canada, catering mainly to colonists' children. It also played a significant role in luring more families from France to Canada, as they sought an education for their children reminiscent of what they would receive in their homeland. The inaugural lessons at the school were attended by approximately twenty European and indigenous boys. Around the same period, Capuchin priests opened a seminary in Acadia for Mi'kmaq and Abenaki boys.

Pioneering Girls’ Education: Ursuline Nuns and Marguerite Bourgeois

By 1639, the Ursuline nuns, led by Marie de l'Incarnation, had arrived in Québec at the invitation of the Jesuits. Three years later, they established the first school for young girls, both white and indigenous. Much like their male counterparts, a core mission of the Ursuline nuns was the conversion of indigenous girls to the Catholic faith.

Across the landscape of early Canada, similar institutions sprang up, fostering education for girls. Schools were opened in Montréal by Marguerite Bourgeois and the Congrégation de Notre-Dame starting in 1658, and in Trois-Rivières around 1664. The scarcity of children in Montréal during this period was such that boys were granted access to these schools until 1666 when a dedicated elementary school for boys emerged, thanks to the efforts of the Sulpicians and the Charon brothers. During this time, girls’ education was generally limited to these schools, as specialized and higher education wasn’t available to them. There were establishments dedicated to housekeeping, however, in Québec, Montréal and on Île-d’Orléans.

With the education system firmly under the purview of the Church, the role of establishing schools, appointing educators, and shaping the curriculum rested squarely with the bishop. In 1669, this responsibility fell upon the shoulders of Bishop François de Laval, who charged the Congrégation de Notre-Dame with spreading girls' education across the colony. Taking on this mission, groups of dedicated nuns from the Congregation, typically numbering two or three, embarked on journeys to the more populated parishes of New France to open schools. Very often, they received financial support from the bishop or from priests.

By the year 1700, the fruits of their labour were apparent as educational institutions blossomed in various corners of the colony. From the lower town of Québec to Château-Richer, Sainte-Famille, Champlain, Lachine, and Pointe-aux-Trembles, the reach of these schools extended far and wide. In due course, they cast their educational net even further, establishing schools in Boucherville, La Prairie, Saint-Laurent, and as far as Louisbourg in Acadia.

From the Séminaire de Québec to Université Laval

For most students, education stopped with the “petite école," marking the end of formal learning. Generally, children spent a mere two years within the confines of the classroom. In Québec, however, authorities wanted a secondary school that could form the country’s future elite. In 1655, the Jesuits founded a school for boys where they could opt to learn the arts (grammar, Latin, Greek and humanities, taught in Latin) or sciences (philosophy, physics and mathematics, taught in French). The year 1660 marked the birth of the Séminaire de Québec, an institution designed to cater to the aspirations of young boys seeking the path of priesthood. Here, students would learn religious and spiritual values, as well as song and prayer. In this corner of the educational landscape, the seeds of intellectual and spiritual growth were sown. The Seminary would later evolve into Université Laval.

Finally, in a concerted effort to extend the reach of education to tradesmen and artisans, specialized institutions emerged in key locations. Québec, Montréal, and Saint-Joachim became homes to these establishments, where the skills and knowledge vital to various crafts and trades were imparted. The Jesuits established a model farm in the fertile expanse of Cap-Tourmente, offering a hands-on education in agriculture. Further diversifying the educational landscape, institutions dedicated to mathematics and hydrography were set up in Québec and Montréal. These schools became the breeding grounds for surveyors, cartographers, explorers, and marine officers.

Rural Education and Travelling Teachers

The majority of schools were located in more populated centres, which unfortunately meant that children living in rural areas were unlikely to receive an education. Colonial authorities cited challenging road infrastructure and the harsh grip of winter weather as deterrents to establishing educational outposts in rural settings. Although most families wanted their children to get a basic education, they also believed that house and farm work were more important. Schooling in rural areas followed a seasonal schedule, accommodating breaks during the crucial planting and harvesting seasons.

In these rural areas, the community stepped in to provide some foundational education to its children. In between their duties, priests assumed the role of educators. Notaries, clerks, churchwardens and other literate tradesmen also donned the mantle of schoolmasters when circumstances dictated. There even existed travelling teachers who would visit the colony’s villages in order to bestow rudimentary education upon the local children—and even adults who wanted to learn to read, write, sign their name or count. In exchange for their teaching services, these travelling educators relied on the goodwill of residents, securing food and lodging during their brief sojourns in each household. Their humble equipment could include a slate and a small rock, a set of 26 cards (one for each letter of the alphabet) or an alphabet book. Some ingeniously repurposed used missals or old newspapers as writing surfaces.

Shaping Young Minds: Curriculum and Goals

During the era of New France, the curriculum for boys and girls, European and indigenous alike, followed a similar course of reading, writing, oratory skills and praying in both French and Latin. Girls received instruction in sewing, embroidery and basic farming skills, while their male counterparts could learn basic arithmetic, agriculture, woodworking and masonry. Religious courses were a significant part of a child’s education. In fact, the primary objective of the school was to shape the children into upstanding Catholic citizens with good moral values, not to prepare them for higher education. The ability to read and write was seen as a means to access religious texts and engage in religious practice. Teachers relied heavily on tried-and-true methods: rote memorization, recitation, and the copying of religious texts.

Teaching Guides and Supplies

During the French Regime in Canada, the absence of a local printing press had profound implications for education. Schools and educators found themselves entirely reliant on France for their supplies and educational materials. A small booklet titled L'école paroissiale ou la manière de bien instruire les enfants des petites écoles (“The parochial school or the way of properly instructing children in small schools”) printed in Paris in 1654 was likely the first teaching manual used in Canada. (It wasn't until 1851 that the very first Canadian Guide de l'instituteur or “Teacher's Guide” was finally printed.) The Parochial School guide defined the necessary skills a teacher required, the religious concepts they needed to teach and the methods they should use to convey their knowledge.

The teacher's toolkit of the time likely included religious texts, such as bibles, catechisms, and assorted religious manuals. In order to write, teachers and students would typically use quill pens, inkwells, and parchment or paper for writing exercises. These materials were relatively scarce and expensive, so students might share resources or use slates for practising handwriting and arithmetic. Teachers also needed candles or oil lamps, especially during the winter months when daylight hours were limited.

Education Transitions: New France to Lower Canada

After the British Conquest in 1760, families remained the primary source of childhood education. The country had fewer than 50 primary schools, resulting in a low literacy rate—less than 20% for men and less than 15% for women—by the late 18th century. Recognizing the need for change, social leaders in the late 1700s began advocating for a public education system.

At this time, the British authorities also saw education as a way to intertwine learning with the values of Protestantism, the English language and British customs. These efforts were strongly resisted by French-Canadian families and ultimately thwarted by the Catholic Church, whose influence still held strong.

In 1801, Lower Canada took a significant step by passing the Acte pour l'établissement d'école gratuite et l'avancement des sciences dans cette province (“the Act for the establishment of free schools and the advancement of science in this province”). Under this law, the government covered part of the teacher's salary, while parents paid school fees to cover the rest. The construction and maintenance costs of schools were the responsibility of the local community, establishing a foundational principle that continues today: shared authority in educational matters between the central government and the local community.

During this period, education in Canada was primarily the privilege of children hailing from elite backgrounds or residing in urban areas. From the mid-19th to the mid-20th century, a solitary teacher in a one-room schoolhouse was the norm for rural children. Rural educators were generally provided modest resources: a desk, a selection of books and maps, a blackboard adorned with chalk and brushes, a globe, a clock, a dictionary, and a bell to beckon young minds to attention. Practicality reigned with the inclusion of a broom, a woodbox or coal bucket to fuel the stove, and a shovel. Most rural teachers lacked formal training or qualifications. 

In 1836, Québec and Montréal saw the establishment of training centres known as Normal Schools, with additional ones sprouting in other Canadian cities from the late 1840s onward. These institutions served the crucial purpose of training teachers and setting minimum qualification standards. The term "normal" derives from France's École normale supérieure, where teaching methods acquired would become the norm for all schools. While the Normal Schools in Québec initially had a brief existence, it wasn't until 1857 that three Normal Schools were firmly established.

A Call for Change

In the mid-19th century, social leaders pushed for the establishment of comprehensive school systems across Canada. Among them, three notable figures emerged as champions of the idea of widespread public education: Egerton Ryerson in Ontario, Jean-Baptiste Meilleur in Québec and John Jessop in British Columbia. These advocates believed that a robust school system held the key to addressing a myriad of societal issues, from curbing crime to alleviating poverty.

As the 19th century unfolded, a noteworthy societal shift occurred in Canada—families began to have fewer children and, in parallel, invested more in education. This shift underscored a growing awareness that education paved the way to a higher quality of life. By the turn of the century, school systems had firmly taken root, and attendance had become mandatory in all provinces except Québec.

French Canadians remained the exception. Despite the adoption of contraception practices by francophones in the mid-19th century, their usage was notably less intense compared to other groups. Similarly, while more francophone children began attending school during this period, their enrollment rates remained significantly lower than the national average. Consequently, literacy rates among francophones lagged far behind the Canadian standard well into the early 20th century. The main reason for the French-Canadian lack of enthusiasm for education was rooted in material survival and security through the labour of all family members. It was only in the post-Second World War era that the dynamic between the education system and francophone society would begin to shift.

Feminization

In the early 1860s, Canada witnessed the emergence of the feminization of the teaching profession—a trend deeply influenced by social and cultural factors. This transformation redefined teaching as a viable profession for women, ultimately expanding their roles in both the workforce and education. While this shift opened doors for women, it also introduced challenges related to gender equity and leadership representation within the education system. By the close of the 19th century, approximately 80% of teachers were women.

Indian Residential Schools

Between the 1870s and 1997, the Government of Canada established a system of boarding schools with the aim of assimilating indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture. Over 150,000 First Nations, Métis and Inuit children were forced to attend these schools, run by various Christian denominations and funded by the Canadian government. Indigenous children were forcibly separated from their families and communities, subjected to harsh living conditions, cultural suppression, and physical and emotional abuse. The last Indian Residential School to close was Kivalliq Hall in Rankin Inlet (present-day Nunavut), in 1997. The legacy of Indian Residential Schools has left deep scars on Indigenous communities, leading to intergenerational trauma, loss of language and culture, and ongoing reconciliation efforts in Canada. In recent years, the discovery of unmarked graves at former school sites has highlighted the extent of the tragedy and has spurred renewed attention on the need for truth, healing, and meaningful reconciliation.

Support is available for anyone affected by their experience at residential schools. A national Indian Residential School Crisis Line has been set up to provide support for former students and those affected. People can access emotional and crisis referral services by calling the 24-hour national crisis line: 1-866-925-4419.

The evolution of teaching in Canada from the days of New France to the establishment of formal and compulsory schooling is a testament to the interplay of culture, religion, and social change. It reflects not only the growth of the education system but also the shifting roles and opportunities for teachers and students throughout Canadian history. However, amidst this narrative of educational progress, it is essential to acknowledge the deeply troubling chapter of Indian Residential Schools, which left a legacy of trauma in Indigenous communities. This history underscores the complexities of Canada's education system, which, alongside its development, became an integral component of an interconnected web of institutions, including hospitals, businesses, prisons, and social welfare agencies.

Click here to view images of our Canadian educators from the 17th century and beyond

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Sources and additional reading:

• Louis-Philippe Audet, “L’éducation au temps de Mgr de Laval," 1957, La Société canadienne d'histoire de l'Église catholique, volume 25, 59-78, digitized by Érudit (https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1007443ar).

• Dr. Scott Berthelette, “Indigenous Residential Schools in New France,” Defining Moments Canada (https://definingmomentscanada.ca/bryce100/history/residential-schools-in-new-france/).

• Jean-Pierre Charland, "Les petites écoles," Cap-aux-Diamants, autumn 2003, number 75, 14–19, in Érudit (https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/cd/2003-n75-cd1046317/7318ac.pdf).

• Chad Gaffield, "History of Education in Canada," The Canadian Encyclopedia, Historica Canada (https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/history-of-education), article published 15 Jul 2013, last updated 4 Mar 2015.

• Amédée Gosselin, L’Instruction au Canada sous le régime français (1635-1760) (Québec : Typ. Laflamme & Proulx, 1911). 

• Richard Leclerc, Histoire de l'éducation au Québec (Richard Leclerc, 1989), Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec (https://collections.banq.qc.ca/ark:/52327/2106901)

• Denise Lemieux, "L’Enfance en Nouvelle-France," Les Éditions Cap-aux-Diamants inc., number 32, winter 1993, in Érudit (https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/8318ac). 

• Jeanne Pomerleau, Métiers ambulants d’autrefois (Montréal : Guérin littérature, 1990), 21-27.

• Karen L. Robson, Sociology of Education in Canada (Toronto : Pearson Canada, 2019), Open Library (https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/robsonsoced/chapter/__unknown__-3/) 

• Michael Wilcox, "Rural Teachers in Canada," The Canadian Encyclopedia, 1 Mar 2017, Historica Canada (www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/rural-teachers-in-canada.